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The Age of Criminal Responsibility for International Crimes Under International Law

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-425-7_5
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Every reference with a DOI in the deposited reference list resolved to a known work in Crossref or DataCite at the dated check, and none carried a retraction, withdrawal, or removal notice.

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The 2 checked references that resolve
resolves10.1163/9789004482197
The International Law on the Rights of the Child
resolves10.1163/9789004638693
A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
The 64 references without a DOI — listed, not checked
no DOI — not checkedProsecutor v. Samuel Hinga Norman, Case No. SCSL-2004-14-AR729E, Appeals Chamber, Special Court for Sierra Leone, Decision on preliminary motion based on lack of jurisdiction (child recruitment), 31 May 2004. For commentary on the decision, see A. Smith,’ Child Recruitment and the Special Court for Sierra Leone’, 2 Journal of International Criminal Justice No. 4 (2004) p. 1141; and M. Happold, ‘International Humanitarian Law, War Criminality and Child Recruitment: The Special Court for Sierra Leone’s Decision in Prosecutor v. Samuel Hinga Norman’, 18 Leiden Journal of International Law No. 2 (2005), p. 283.
no DOI — not checkedHuman Rights Watch, Letter to Foreign Minister of Democratic Republic of Congo, 2 May 2001.
no DOI — not checkedHuman Rights Watch monthly e-mail update, Congo Spares Child Soldiers, June 2001; and Human Rights Watch press release, Congo: Don’t Execute Child Soldiers: Four Children to be Put to Death, 2 May 2001.
no DOI — not checkedSee Human Rights Watch, Uganda: Letter to Minister of Justice, 19 February 2003; Human Rights Watch press release, Uganda: Drop Treason Charges Against Child Abductees, 4 March 2003; John Eremu, ‘Treason Suspects Apply for Amnesty’, New Vision, 5 April 2003; and Human Rights Watch monthly e-mail update, Treason Charges Against Child Soldiers Dropped, April 2003.
no DOI — not checkedFor examples of such behaviour, see R. Brett and M. McCallin, Children: The Invisible Soldiers rev. edn. (Stockholm, Radda Barnen 1998) pp. 92–93. In this chapter, the term ‘international crimes’ will be used to refer to behaviour which gives rise to individual criminal responsibility as a matter of international law and not to conduct which international law requires states to criminalise in their own domestic law. Discussion will concentrate on crimes within the jurisdiction of the various international criminal tribunals: genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.
no DOI — not checkedIbid., pp. 153–154. See also the comments in C.P. Dodge, ‘Child Soldiers of Uganda and Mozambique’, in C.P. Dodge and M. Raundalen (eds.), Reaching Children in War: Sudan, Uganda and Mozambique (Bergen, Sigma Forlag 1991); I. Cohn and G.S. Goodwin-Gill, Child Soldiers: The Role of Children in Armed Conflicts (Oxford, Oxford University Press 1994) p. 26; Human Rights Watch, Easy Prey: Child Soldiers in Liberia, 1994, p. 57; Amnesty International, Sierra Leone: Childhood—A Casualty of Conflict, 2000, p. 4; and Human Rights Watch, Stolen Children: Abduction and Recruitment in Northern Uganda, 2003, p. 9.
no DOI — not checkedIn this chapter the term ‘child’ means a person under eighteen years of age. CRC Article 1 provides that: ‘For the purposes of the present Convention a child means every human being below the age of eighteen unless, under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.’
no DOI — not checkedSee A. Ashworth, Principles of Criminal Law 3rd edn. (Oxford, Oxford University Press 1999) pp. 87–88.
no DOI — not checkedA. Simester and R. Sullivan, Criminal Law: Theory and Doctrine 1st edn. (Oxford, Hart Publishing 2000) p. 541.
no DOI — not checkedA. Simester and R. Sullivan, Criminal Law: Theory and Doctrine 1st edn. (Oxford, Hart Publishing 2000)Ibid., pp. 644–645.
no DOI — not checkedSee the ICC Elements of Crimes, Article 6: Genocide.
no DOI — not checkedICC Elements of CrimesIbid, Article 7: Crimes Against Humanity.
no DOI — not checkedICC Elements of CrimesIbid, Article 8: War Crimes.
no DOI — not checkedArticle 77(5) prohibits the execution of the death penalty for offences related to an international armed conflict on persons who had not attained the age of eighteen years at the time when the crime was committed.
no DOI — not checkedOfficial Records of the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian law Applicable in Armed Conflicts (1974–1777: Geneva, Switzerland), O.R. III, p. 307; CDDH/III/325.
no DOI — not checkedOfficial Records of the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian law Applicable in Armed ConflictsIbid., O.R. XV, p. 219; CDDH/II/SR.59.
no DOI — not checkedUNGA Resolution 40/33, annex; UN Doc. A/40/53 (1985).
no DOI — not checkedSee the instances listed in R. Hodgkin and P. Newell, Implementation Handbookfor the Convention on the Rights of the Child fully rev. edn. (New York, UNICEF 2002) pp. 602–603.
no DOI — not checkedSee Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘Report on the tenth session’ (Geneva, 30 October-17 November 1995), UN Doc. CRC/C/46 (1995), paras. 203–238, in para. 218.
no DOI — not checkedUN Doc. CRC/C/SR/248, para. 26.
no DOI — not checkedSee Hodgkin and Newell, Implementation Handbookfor the Convention on the Rights of the Childsupra n. 20, p. 603.
no DOI — not checkedT. v. United Kingdom and V v. United Kingdom (2000) 30 European Human Rights Law Reports 121. The two cases were heard together. See also chapter 13 of this book, by Nuala Mole.
no DOI — not checked‘Concluding Observations on the United Kingdom’s Initial Report’, UN Doc. CRC/15/Add.34 (1995), para. 34.
no DOI — not checkedT. v. United Kingdom and V. v. United Kingdom supra n. 24, p. 146. At the time, the age of criminal responsibility was seven in Cyprus, Ireland, Liechtenstein and Switzerland; eight in Scotland; thirteen in France; fourteen in Austria, Germany, Italy and many eastern European States; fifteen in the Scandinavian States; sixteen in Andorra, Portugal and Poland; and eighteen in Belgium, Luxembourg and Spain.
no DOI — not checkedT. v. United Kingdom and V. v. United Kingdom supra n. 24Ibid., p. 176.
no DOI — not checkedJudges Pastor Ridruejo, Ress, Makarcyzk, Tulkens and Butkevych.
no DOI — not checkedT. v. United Kingdom and V. v. United Kingdom supra n. 24, p. 203.
no DOI — not checkedT. v. United Kingdom and V. v. United Kingdom supraIbid., p. 202.
no DOI — not checkedT. v. United Kingdom and V. v. United Kingdom supraIbid.
no DOI — not checkedSee the ‘Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to para. 2 of Security Council Resolution No. 808 (1993)’, UN Doc. S/25704, reprinted in 32 International Legal Materials 1170, para. 58 (1993): ‘The international tribunal [for the former Yugoslavia] will have to decide on various personal defences which may relieve a person of individual criminal responsibility, such as minimum age or mental incapacity, drawing upon the general principles of law recognised by all nations.’
no DOI — not checkedIt has been argued that the lack of such a provision marked a tacit understanding that eighteen was the minimum age of criminal responsibility for the purposes of the two statutes.
no DOI — not checkedSee R.S. Clark and O. Triffterer, ‘Article 26: exclusion of jurisdiction over persons under eighteen’, in O. Triffterer (ed.), Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: Observers’Notes, Article by Article (Baden-Baden, Nomos Verlag 1999) p. 499.
no DOI — not checkedR.S. Clark and O. Triffterer, ‘Article 26: exclusion of jurisdiction over persons under eighteen’, in O. Triffterer (ed.), Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: Observers’Notes, Article by Article (Baden-Baden, Nomos Verlag 1999)Ibid., p. 497.
no DOI — not checkedCaucus on Children’s Rights in the ICC, ‘Recommendations and Commentary for the December 1997 Preparatory Committee Meeting on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court’, on file with the author.
no DOI — not checkedClark and Triffterer, ‘Article 26: exclusion of jurisdiction over persons under eighteen’, in O. Triffterer (ed.), Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: Observers’Notes, Article by Article (Baden-Baden, Nomos Verlag 1999)supra n. 34, p. 495.
no DOI — not checkedAlthough it has been argued that the provision cannot be said to be totally neutral, as its adoption was also about avoiding having to establish a special system of juvenile justice for the ICC.
no DOI — not checked‘Report of the Secretary-General on the establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone’, UN Doc. S/2000/915, 4 October 2000.
no DOI — not checked‘Report of the Secretary-General on the establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone’, UN Doc.Ibid., paras. 34–35.
no DOI — not checked‘Report of the Security Council mission to Sierra Leone’, UN Doc. S/2000/992, 16 October 2000, para. 50.
no DOI — not checked‘Report of the Security Council mission to Sierra Leone’, UN Doc.Ibid., para. 54(b).
no DOI — not checkedArticle 7(2), draft Statute, ibid., enclosure.
no DOI — not checkedSee in particular ICCPR Articles 10(2b), 10(3), 14(1) and 14(4); and CRC Articles 37(b), 37(c), 37(d), 40(1), 40(2bii), 40(2bvii) and 40(4).
no DOI — not checkedIbid., para. 36.
no DOI — not checkedIbid., para. 38.
no DOI — not checkedLetter dated 22 December 2000 from the President of the Security Council addressed to the Secretary-General, UN Doc. S/2000/1234, Annex.
no DOI — not checkedAlthough it has been suggested that the intention was to make the prosecution of child soldiers before the Special Court less likely, on the ground that too detailed provisions for such trials would legitimise such proceedings and encourage their use.
no DOI — not checkedUN Doc.Ibid., para. 1.
no DOI — not checkedUN Doc. S/1999/777.
no DOI — not checkedLetter dated 12 January 2001 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/2001/40, para. 2.
no DOI — not checkedUN Doc.Ibid., paras. 7–8.
no DOI — not checkedUNSC Resolution 1315 of 14 August 2000.
no DOI — not checkedUN Doc.Ibid., para. 3. See also chapter 9 of this book, by David Crane.
no DOI — not checked‘Report of the Secretary-General on the establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone’, UN Doc. S/2000/915, 4 October 2000, para. 30.
no DOI — not checked‘Report of the Secretary-General on the establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone’, UN Doc.Ibid., para. 32.
no DOI — not checkedLetter dated 12 January 2001 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/2001/40, para. 1.
no DOI — not checkedSee the comments of Hans Corell, UN Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs, in C. McGreal, ‘Unique Court to Try Killers of Sierra Leone’, The Guardian, 17 January 2002, and D. Crane, Special Court Prosecutor, in R. Dowden, ‘Justice Goes on Trial in Sierra Leone’, The Guardian, 3 October 2002.
no DOI — not checkedSee above, text to n. 41, and Letter dated 12 January 2001 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/2001/40, para. 9.
no DOI — not checkedSpecial Court for Sierra Leone, Public Affairs Office, press release, Special Court Prosecutor Says He Will Not Prosecute Children, 2 November 2002.
no DOI — not checkedWhich was, of course, adopted by the Security Council and the government of Sierra Leone.
no DOI — not checkedSee I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, 5th edn. (Oxford, Oxford University Press 2003) pp. 303–305.
no DOI — not checkedArticles 49, 50, 129, 146 and 1949 of the Geneva Conventions and Article 85 of Additional Protocol I.
no DOI — not checkedSee United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘The Exclusion Clauses: Guidelines on Their Application’ (December 1995), reproduced in P.J. van Krieken (ed.), Refugee Law in Context: The Exclusion Clause (The Hague, T.M.C. Asser Instituut 1999) p. 22; and S. Kaepferer, ‘Exclusion Clauses in Europe — A Comparative Overview of State Practice in France, Belgium and the United Kingdom’, 12 International Journal of Refugee Law Suppl. 1 (2000) p. 214. For discussion of child soldiers as asylum seekers and refugees, see M. Happold, Child Soldiers in International Law (Manchester, Manchester University Press 2005) pp. 160–169.
no DOI — not checkedAlthough even then problems could arise if the minimum age of criminal responsibility for domestic crimes is not standardised, as in many cases conduct amounting to an international crime will also be criminal under the relevant domestic law.
no DOI — not checkedSee ‘Children and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission for Sierra Leone: Recommendations for policies and procedures for addressing and involving children in the Truth and Reconciliation Commission’ (2001), available at > http://www.unicef.org/emerg/SierraLeone-TRCReport.pdf >; Truth and Reconciliation Commission for Sierra Leone, Truth and Reconciliation Commission Report for the Children of Sierra Leone: Child-Friendly Version (Accra, Graphic Packaging September 2004) p. 8, < http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/sierraleone23937 >.
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