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Early Pleistocene Glacial Cycles and the Integrated Summer Insolation Forcing
24/24 checkable references clean · checked 2026-07-14
Every reference with a DOI in the deposited reference list resolved to a known work in Crossref or DataCite at the dated check, and none carried a publisher retraction, withdrawal, or removal notice.
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The 24 checked references that resolve
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Astronomic timescale for the Pliocene Atlantic δ<sup>18</sup>O and dust flux records of Ocean Drilling Program Site 659
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A Pliocene‐Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ<sup>18</sup>O records
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The 13 references without a DOI — listed, not checked
no DOI — not checkedJ. Adhémar Révolutions de la Mer (Carilian-Goeury et V. Dalmont Paris 1842).
no DOI — not checkedM. Milankovitch Kanon der Erdbestrahlung und seine Andwendung auf das Eiszeitenproblem (Royal Serbian Academy Belgrade 1941).
no DOI — not checkedK. Nisancioglu thesis Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2004).
no DOI — not checkedDaily average surface temperatures are estimated by using the network of 8892 World Meteorological Organization (WMO) stations above 30°N for the years 1994 to 1999. All stations that have greater than 80% data coverage are used. Data gaps are filled by linear interpolation. Stations are standardized to 1 km of elevation assuming a lapse rate of 6.5°C/km were binned according to 1° or 10° latitude bands (as indicated in the text) and are then averaged together. Lastly each of the six consecutive seasonal cycles are averaged together yielding average annual cycles as a function of latitude.
no DOI — not checkedR. Braithwaite, Y. Zhang, J. Glaciol.152, 7 (2000).
no DOI — not checkedThe use of a constant value for τ illustrates the concept of summer energy. A more detailed description would take into account that τ is expected to be spatially and temporally variable depending on factors such as elevation albedo clouds heat transport and greenhouse gas concentrations. Note however that results are not sensitive to plausible choices of τ and that values less than 325 W/m 2 yield broadly consistent summer energies (fig. S1). Summer energy values at 65°N are given in table S1.
no DOI — not checkedThe relationship between insolation intensity and insolation energy is more precisely illustrated by noting that I ∝ 1/ r 2 where I is insolation intensity and r is the distance from the Earth to the Sun. Conservation of angular momentum (or equivalently Kepler's second law) dictates that dt ∝ r 2 d λ where dt is an infinitesimal change in time and d λ the corresponding change in solar longitude. The energy received by the Earth is then J = Idt ∝ d λ. In contrast with I the J between any two solar longitudes is independent of r and thus independent of the precession of the equinoxes.
no DOI — not checkedAre past changes in summer energy sufficient to cause the waxing and waning of ice sheets? Although a full answer requires a realistic model of Pleistocene climate some indication is provided by modern glacial changes: A 2.4 W/m 2 global average increase in radiative forcing caused by greenhouse gases ( 34 ) has apparently led to a general decrease in glacial mass ( 35 ) suggesting that glaciers are sensitive to relatively small changes in the radiation budget.
no DOI — not checkedMaterials and Methods are available as supporting material on Science Online.
no DOI — not checkedAmplitude cross correlation was computed by pairing local maxima in insolation with the nearest (in time) maximum in the rate of change of ice volume. Before identifying maxima both the δ 18 O record and the summer energy were smoothed by using an 11-ky tapered window. There are 34 local maxima in summer energy at 65°N between 2 and 1 My ago and another 34 between 1 My ago and the present. Squared cross correlations of 0.4 and higher have P values of less than 0.01. Spectral and coherence analysis is performed by using Thomson's multitaper method ( 36 ).
no DOI — not checkedSimilar with the early Pleistocene late Pleistocene ice volume change has significant variability concentrated at the obliquity band which is in phase and coherent with summer energy ( P = 0.01). That the obliquity component of summer energy varies symmetrically between the hemispheres helps explain the symmetry of glacial variations between the hemispheres. Also the increase in summer energy near 420 ky ago absent in measures of summer insolation forcing relying on intensity helps explain the corresponding glacial termination.
no DOI — not checkedJ. Houghtonet al. Eds. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge Univ. Press New York 2001).
no DOI — not checkedThis paper benefited from discussion with E. Boyle B. Curry M. Raymo P. Stone E. Tziperman and C. Wunsch. J. Levine provided valuable assistance in calculating the insolation. The NSF paleoclimate program supported this work under grant no. ATM-0455470.
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