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Rutile-Bearing Refractory Eclogites: Missing Link Between Continents and Depleted Mantle
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The 35 checked references that resolve
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Partial melting of subducted oceanic crust and isolation of its residual eclogitic lithology
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Fluid- and melt-related enrichment in the subarc mantle: Evidence from Nb/Ta variations in island-arc basalts
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Nb/Ta fractionation in a Cambrian arc/back arc system, New Zealand: source constraints and application of refined ICPMS techniques
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Rutile saturation in magmas: implications for TiNbTa depletion in island-arc basalts
resolves10.1007/BF01041749
Petrochemistry of eclogites from the Koidu Kimberlite Complex, Sierra Leone
resolves10.1016/0012-821X(94)90145-7
Trace elements in diamond inclusions from eclogites reveal link to Archean granites
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Diamondiferous eclogites from Yakutia, Siberia: evidence for a diversity of protoliths
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Petrography and geochemistry of eclogites from the Mir kimberlite, Yakutia, Russia
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Constraints on the composition of the continental lithospheric mantle
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Unusual upper mantle beneath Guaniamo, Guyana shield, Venezuela: Evidence from diamond inclusions
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Dipping Low-Velocity Layer in the Mid-Lower Mantle: Evidence for Geochemical Heterogeneity
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Archaean Re–Os age for Siberian eclogites and constraints on Archaean tectonics
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Effect of steeper Archean geothermal gradient on geochemistry of subduction-zone magmas
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Eclogite xenoliths in west African kimberlites as residues from Archaean granitoid crust formation
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Rutile-aqueous fluid partitioning of Nb, Ta, Hf, Zr, U and Th: implications for high field strength element depletions in island-arc basalts
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The 44 references without a DOI — listed, not checked
no DOI — not checked; S. R. Taylor and S. M. McLennan The Continental Crust: Its Composition and Evolution (Blackwell Scientific Publications Oxford 1985) p. 67;
no DOI — not checked; S.-S. Sun and W. F. McDonough in Magmatism in the Ocean Basins A. Saunders and M. Norry Eds. (Geological Society London special edition 1989) vol. 42 pp. 313–345.
no DOI — not checkedMORB are depleted in Nb relative to La and because Nb is more incompatible than La during mantle melting (13) it follows that the source region of MORB the so-called DM must have even lower Nb/La.
no DOI — not checkedBoth are 0.064 nm for octahedral coordination [
no DOI — not checkedWe consider here only data from high-precision techniques where both elements are analyzed simultaneously such as inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) [
no DOI — not checked] and multichannel spark source mass spectrometry [
no DOI — not checkedJochum K.-P., et al., J. Anal. Chem. 359, 385 (1997)].
no DOI — not checkedJochum K.-P., Pfander J., Snow J. E., Hofmann A. W., Eos 78, F805 (1997).
no DOI — not checkedPlank T., White W. M., Eos 76, F655 (1995).
no DOI — not checkedJochum K.-P., Hofmann A. W., Stolz A. J., Eos 77, F785 (1996).
no DOI — not checkedM. G. Barth W. F. McDonough R. L. Rudnick Chem. Geol. in press.
no DOI — not checkedand references therein.
no DOI — not checkedE. Takazawa thesis Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge MA (1996)
no DOI — not checkedO. Muetner thesis Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (1997).
no DOI — not checkedTo date superchondritic Nb/Ta has been observed only in some high K island arc lavas [
no DOI — not checked] which can have Nb/Ta up to 33. However these lavas are volumetrically minor and share the low Nb/La typical of other convergent margin magmas. Therefore they do not appear to derive from a source with the necessary chemical composition to achieve the mass balance. Similarly some OIB have superchondritic Nb/La but not Nb/Ta (10) or Ti/Zr ratios (1). Superchondritic Ti/Zr is observed in massif peridotites but these have strongly subchondritic Nb/Ta and Nb/La (14).
no DOI — not checkedand references therein.
no DOI — not checkedSupplementary material is available at www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/1044137.shl (Web table 1).
no DOI — not checkedMajor and minor elements including Al 2 O 3 Cr 2 O 3 MgO ZrO 2 and Nb 2 O 5 were determined with a Camebax MBX electron microprobe operated at 15 kV and a 30-nA beam current using a rastered spot of 100 μm. Trace elements were determined by laser ablation ICP-MS with a home-built excimer laser that operates in the deep ultraviolet at 193 nm. This laser is coupled to a VG Plasmaquad 2+ ICP-MS which has sensitivity in solution mode of ∼1 × 10 8 cps/ppm at mass 115. Details of the laser system are in (I. Horn R. L. Rudnick W. F. McDonough Chem. Geol. in press) and can also be viewed at reduction follows the procedure outlined in [H. Longerich S. E. Jackson D. Günther J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom. 11 899 (1996)]. For the rutile analyses 49 Ti was used as the internal standard and NIST 610 glass was used for the calibration standard. Excellent agreement exists between electron microprobe and LA-ICP-MS data for elements analyzed by both techniques (Al Fe Cr Zr and Nb).
no DOI — not checkedK.-P. Jochum and A. J. Stolz Meteoritics Planet. Sci. 32 Suppl. 67 (1997).
no DOI — not checkedThe only exception to this generalization are rutiles from the Magnet Cove carbonatite complex and a rutile from a South Carolina beach sand of unknown provenance.
no DOI — not checkedSupplementary material is available at www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/1044137.shl (Web table 2).
no DOI — not checkedThe two rutiles occur in veins in harzburgite xenoliths carried in volcanoes of the eastern African Rift: Labait and Pello Hill. In the Labait sample (LB-17) the rutile is associated with secondary zircon sulfide orthopyroxene chromite and minor phlogopite [R. L. Rudnick et al. in Proc. Seventh International Kimberlite Conference Cape Town South Africa J. J. Gurney and S. R. Richardson Eds. (Red Barn Cape Town South Africa 1999)]. In the sample from Pello Hill (PEL-40) rutile occurs in a phlogopite vein that also contains abundant sulfide.
no DOI — not checkedSiberian eclogites come from the Udachnaya pipe courtesy of Z. Spetsius and N. Sobolev.
no DOI — not checkedThe western African eclogites come from the Koidu kimberlite pipe Sierra Leone and constitute the low MgO suite of (24). They are essentially bimineralic rocks with accessory sulfides and rutile. Kyanite coesite graphite and diamond also occur as accessory phases. See (24) for a complete description.
no DOI — not checkedThe Nb/Ta Nb/La and Ti/Zr ratios of the eclogites follow log-normal distributions. We have therefore chosen the geometric mean as the value most representative of the population.
no DOI — not checkedRutile occurs in the eclogites as equant grains from 100 μm to several millimeters in diameter. The rutiles generally occur interstitial to altered garnet and omphacite but occasionally they occur fully included in omphacite. They typically show exsolution of ilmenite ± spinel at 90 o angles. Some rutiles show thin (several micrometers) rims of ilmenite with variable MgO and MnO contents. Rims were not measured in laser ablation analyses. Metasomatic rutile is distinguished by highly heterogeneous Nb and Ta contents and occasionally by a skeletal texture. Based on textures trace element homogeneity and evidence for equilibrium between rutile and primary silicates all rutiles reported in Web table 2 (21) are considered primary phases.
no DOI — not checkedUnpublished data show that garnets and omphacites in rutile-bearing samples have Nb and Ta concentrations generally below detection limits which vary as a function of spot size. For the spot sizes used in this study (50 to 100 μm) detection limits of 10 to 400 ppb are typical for both Nb and Ta. In contrast garnet and omphacite contain significant Nb and Ta concentrations in rutile-free eclogites. About 70% of the low MgO eclogites from Koidu are rutile bearing.
no DOI — not checkedLarge ion lithophile elements include light weight REE K Rb Cs Sr and Ba.
no DOI — not checkedE. Jagoutz J. B. Dawson S. Hoernes B. Spettel H. Wanke Proc. 15th Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. 395 (1984)
no DOI — not checkedNeal et al. Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 99 362 (1990);
no DOI — not checked. In addition the western African whole rock powders were ground in a tungsten carbide mill which has led to significant Ta contamination. This is reflected by the good correlation between W and Ta values and very low Nb/Ta ratios (down to 1) in the whole rocks.
no DOI — not checkedThe weight percent of rutile in the eclogites was determined from Ti mass balance by using the measured Ti contents of garnet and omphacite and their modal abundances [both given in (24)] to calculate their contribution to the whole rock Ti budget. Because both garnet and omphacite have lower TiO 2 than the bulk rock this invariably led to a Ti deficit which was made up by assuming that the remaining Ti was present in rutile. For the two samples lacking bulk rock TiO 2 concentrations the TiO 2 content of the whole rock was calculated by assuming it has no Ti anomaly (that is Ti is not depleted or enriched relative to elements of similar incompatibility such as Eu). The methodology described above yields the maximum amount of rutile in the sample because it does not account for any Ti that is in secondary phases such as amphibole (0.5 to 2.5 weight % TiO 2 ) and phlogopite (1.6 to 4 weight % TiO 2 ). However the overestimation is small and within the errors of the estimate. For example sample KEC 81-18 has the highest measured bulk K 2 O content of 1 weight %. If all this K 2 O is contained within phlogopite it corresponds to 11% phlogopite in the whole rock by weight which in turn corresponds to only 0.03 weight % of the bulk rock's TiO 2 content. Decreasing the whole rock TiO 2 content by this amount leads to an estimated rutile abundance of 0.61% compared with 0.64% if the phlogopite is ignored. We thus conclude that our estimates of rutile proportions are accurate to within ±0.05% absolute or 10% relative uncertainty.
no DOI — not checkedThe Al 2 O 3 contents of xenolithic eclogites are derived from a literature compilation of major element compositions for 77 samples normalized to 100% anhydrous. The population follows neither a log-normal nor a normal distribution but is skewed to high values. We therefore adopt the median Al 2 O 3 content of xenolithic eclogites (15.8 weight %) as best representative of the population. Further statistics: average = 17.6% ± 5.9% (1σ) minimum = 7.4% maximum = 31%.
no DOI — not checkedA minimum estimate of the amount of oceanic crust subducted though Earth history is 1.3 × 10 26 g or 3.3% of the silicate Earth by mass. This is derived by assuming the present mass of oceanic crust (5.3 × 10 24 g) is subducted every 100 million years for the last 2.5 billion years (Ga). This estimate is nearly identical to that commonly assumed in recycling models for OIB generation (44). We consider this estimate a minimum bound because subduction may well have operated before 2.5 Ga the ocean basins may have been larger than at present (if the mass of the continents has increased with time) and the mantle was hotter in the Archean which would produce a greater thickness of oceanic crust at a faster rate.
no DOI — not checked; P. H. Nixon Ed. Mantle Xenoliths (Wiley New York 1989). However in rare occurrences eclogite may dominate some areas of the lithospheric mantle see [N. V. Sobolev E. S. Yefimova D. M. De
no DOI — not checked] and references therein.
no DOI — not checkedLa Nb and Ta contents of the eclogitic reservoir were calculated from mass balance assuming that the silicate Earth (SE) is made up of four components: DM continental crust (CC) primitive mantle (PM) and a refractory eclogite reservoir (EC). The concentration of an element in the eclogite reservoir is X EC i = ( X SE i − M CC X CC i − M DM X DM i − M PM X PM i ) where X zz i is the concentration of element i in reservoir zz and M zz is the mass fraction of the reservoir relative to the total silicate Earth. The mass fraction of the reservoirs and the range in concentrations used in the calculations are given in Table 1.
no DOI — not checkedBarth M. G., Rudnick R. L., Carlson R. W., Horn I., McDonough W. F., Eos 80, F1192 (1999).
no DOI — not checked; R. L. Rudnick in Extended Abstracts 6th International Kimberlite Conference (1995) p. 473;
no DOI — not checkedand references therein.
no DOI — not checkedSee [
no DOI — not checked] for a lexicon of OIB end members.
no DOI — not checkedWe thank S. Haggerty Z. Spetsius and N. Sobolev for eclogite samples; D. Lange for electron microprobe analyses and back-scattered electron images; and C. Francis for rutiles from the Harvard Mineralogical Museum collection. K. Lehnert and C. Langmuir provided access to their nascent MORB database which we greatly appreciate. S. Haggerty A. Hofmann T. Plank and an anonymous reviewer provided thoughtful comments on the manuscript. This work was supported by NSF grants EAR 9804677 to R.L.R. EAR 9506517 to W.F.M. and EAR 9711008 to R.L.R. and W.F.M.
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