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Multivariate Models of Animal Sex: Breaking Binaries Leads to a Better Understanding of Ecology and Evolution

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The ends of a continuum: genetic and temperature‐dependent sex determination in reptiles
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Let's Talk About Sex − Not Gender
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Biological sex is binary, even though there is a rainbow of sex roles
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Partial divergence in microhabitat use suggests environmental-dependent selection on a colour polymorphic lizard
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Morph-specific differences in escape behavior in a color polymorphic lizard
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Sex determination without the Y Chromosome in two Japanese rodents Tokudaia osimensis osimensis and Tokudaia osimensis spp.
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The process of a Y-loss event in an XO/XO mammal, the Ryukyu spiny rat
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Isolation and development of a molecular sex marker for Bassiana duperreyi, a lizard with XX/XY sex chromosomes and temperature-induced sex reversal
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Hurdling Over Sex? Sport, Science, and Equity
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The secret identity of a biology textbook: straight and naturally sexed
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The “Sex Role” Concept: An Overview and Evaluation
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Considering Gender-Biased Assumptions in Evolutionary Biology
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Sexual selection and the descent of man. 1871–1971
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Tetrapolar fungal mating types: Sexes by the thousands
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Alternative reproductive strategies and tactics: diversity within sexes
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Epigenetic Control of Reproduction
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Epigenetic Principles of Evolution
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The history and impact of women in animal behaviour and the ABS: a North American perspective
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The role of diversity in science: a case study of women advancing female birdsong research
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Let's talk about sex roles: what affects perceptions of sex differences in animal behaviour?
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Colour morph predicts social behaviour and contest outcomes in a polymorphic lizard (Podarcis erhardii)
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Spotted hyenas
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Female Penis, Male Vagina, and Their Correlated Evolution in a Cave Insect
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Divergence and Functional Degradation of a Sex Chromosome-like Supergene
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Supergenes: The Genomic Architecture of a Bird with Four Sexes
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Bird genitalia
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Some like it hotter: Differential thermal preferences among lizard color morphs
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A brief history of sex determination
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Mammalian sexual differentiation: lessons from the spotted hyena
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A major evolutionary transition to more than two sexes?
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Linking color polymorphism maintenance and speciation
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Same-sex sexual behavior and evolution
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The evolution and significance of male mate choice
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On anisogamy and the evolution of ‘sex roles’
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Diurnal patterns and sex differences in cortisol, 11-ketotestosterone, testosterone, and 17β-estradiol in the bluebanded goby (Lythrypnus dalli)
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Neurosteroids, immunosteroids, and the Balkanization of endocrinology
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Testosterone secretion varies in a sex- and stage-specific manner: Insights on the regulation of competitive traits from a sex-role reversed species
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Early nighttime testosterone peaks are correlated with GnRH-induced testosterone in a diurnal songbird
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Relationships between hormones, physiological performance and immunocompetence in a color-polymorphic lizard species, Podarcis melisellensis
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Concepts derived from the Challenge Hypothesis
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Inside the supergene of the bird with four sexes
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Oestrogenic modulation of singing in male zebra finches: differential effects on directed and undirected songs
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Male parental care and its adaptive significance in a neotropical frog
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The Gene csd Is the Primary Signal for Sexual Development in the Honeybee and Encodes an SR-Type Protein
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The misuses of “biological sex”
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Mammalian sex reversal and intersexuality
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Sex-role reversal in vertebrates: behavioural and endocrinological accounts
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Alternative Reproductive Tactics
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The Evolution of Anisogamy
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Dr. George Murray Levick (1876–1956): unpublished notes on the sexual habits of the Adélie penguin
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Differential Evolutionary Rates
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The evolution, maintenance and adaptive function of genetic colour polymorphism in birds
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Female mimicry in male bluegill sunfish—a genetic polymorphism?
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Density cycles and an offspring quantity and quality game driven by natural selection
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Genetic polymorphism for alternative mating behaviour in lekking male ruff Philomachus pugnax
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The rock–paper–scissors game and the evolution of alternative male strategies
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Intra-sexual selection in Drosophila
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Developments in the prediction of effective population size
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Speciation through sensory drive in cichlid fish
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The avian Z-linked gene DMRT1 is required for male sex determination in the chicken
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Accelerated speciation in colour-polymorphic birds
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Sex reversal triggers the rapid transition from genetic to temperature-dependent sex
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A supergene determines highly divergent male reproductive morphs in the ruff
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Vertebrate sex determination: evolutionary plasticity of a fundamental switch
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Effective population size and patterns of molecular evolution and variation
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The evolution of parental care diversity in amphibians
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An alternative hypothesis for the evolution of same-sex sexual behaviour in animals
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Extreme Y chromosome polymorphism corresponds to five male reproductive morphs of a freshwater fish
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Sex-specific morphs: the genetics and evolution of intra-sexual variation
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Degree of anisogamy is unrelated to the intensity of sexual selection
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Reduced Activity of SRY and its Target Enhancer Sox9-TESCO in a Mouse Species with X*Y Sex Reversal
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Colour polymorphism in birds: causes and functions
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1207851109openalex-snapshot
No evidence of sexual selection in a repetition of Bateman’s classic study of Drosophila melanogaster
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1820320116openalex-snapshot
Regulatory changes in pterin and carotenoid genes underlie balanced color polymorphisms in the wall lizard
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Inequality in science and the case for a new agenda
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2118574119openalex-snapshot
Polygenic sex determination produces modular sex polymorphism in an African cichlid fish
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Alternative adaptations, speciation, and phylogeny (A Review)
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Rethinking Bateman’s Principles: Challenging Persistent Myths of Sexually Reluctant Females and Promiscuous Males
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The evolution and frequency of female color morphs in Holarctic Odonata: why are male-like females typically the minority?
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Does wing shape of andromorph females ofCalopteryx splendens(Harris, 1780) resemble that of males?
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The terminology of identities between, outside and beyond the gender binary – A systematic review
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Role of clinical laboratories in reporting results of transgender individuals on hormonal therapy
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On Forces of Selection in the Evolution of Mating Types
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The "Challenge Hypothesis": Theoretical Implications for Patterns of Testosterone Secretion, Mating Systems, and Breeding Strategies
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The Evolution of Parental Care
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Nature, Data, and Power: How Hegemonies Shaped This Special Section
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Discussions of the “Not So Fit”: How Ableism Limits Diverse Thought and Investigative Potential in Evolutionary Biology
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What’s Gender Got to Do with It? Dismantling the Human Hierarchies in Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Toxicology for Scientific and Social Progress
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SIZE DIMORPHISM, INTRASEXUAL COMPETITION, AND SEXUAL SELECTION IN WATTLED JACANA (JACANA JACANA), A SEX-ROLE-REVERSED SHOREBIRD IN PANAMA
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Color-assortative mating in a color-polymorphic lacertid lizard
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Male-to-female testosterone ratios, dimorphism, and life history—what does it really tell us?
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The 150th anniversary ofThe Descent of Man: Darwin and the impact of sex-role reversal on sexual selection research
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Challenge Hypothesis 2.0: A Fresh Look at an Established Idea
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The Darwin-Bateman Paradigm in Historical Context
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Neuroendocrinology of Sex-Role Reversal
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The Squamate Clitoris: A Review and Directions for Future Research
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Negative-Assortative Mating in the White-Throated Sparrow
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The genomic revolution and species delimitation in birds (and other organisms): Why phenotypes should not be overlooked
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Color Polymorphism is a Driver of Diversification in the Lizard Family Lacertidae
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Permanent female mimics in a lekking shorebird
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Trophic niche divergence among colour morphs that exhibit alternative mating tactics
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Why are there only two sexes?
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A novel sex determination system in a close relative of the house mouse
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Neural sensitivity to sex steroids predicts individual differences in aggression: implications for behavioural evolution
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The evolution of genetic and conditional alternative reproductive tactics
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First evidence of hemiclitores in snakes
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DNA methylation and epigenetic inheritance
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Perils and pitfalls of reporting sex differences
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Epigenetic mechanisms in sex determination and in the evolutionary transitions between sexual systems
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Supergenes on steroids
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The role of androgens in clitorophallus development and possible applications to transgender patients
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Geographic variation in animal colour polymorphisms and its role in speciation
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Sexual selection and its evolutionary consequences in female animals
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Fungal evolution: cellular, genomic and metabolic complexity
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Convergence and divergence in lizard colour polymorphisms
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Sex roles and sex ratios in animals
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Neural Gene Expression Profiles and Androgen Levels Underlie Alternative Reproductive Tactics in the Ocellated Wrasse, Symphodus ocellatus
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XY FEMALES DO BETTER THAN THE XX IN THE AFRICAN PYGMY MOUSE,MUS MINUTOIDES
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SOCIAL CAUSES OF CORRELATIONAL SELECTION AND THE RESOLUTION OF A HERITABLE THROAT COLOR POLYMORPHISM IN A LIZARD
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ANIMALS MIX IT UP TOO: THE DISTRIBUTION OF SELF-FERTILIZATION AMONG HERMAPHRODITIC ANIMALS
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Environmentally induced changes in carotenoid‐based coloration of female lizards: a comment on Vercken et al.
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Parental investment, sexual selection and sex ratios
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Sex, outcrossing and mating types: unsolved questions in fungi and beyond
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Sneakers, Satellites and Parentals: Polymorphic Mating Strategies in North American Sunfishes
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POLYMORPHISM
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Having sex, yes, but with whom? Inferences from fungi on the evolution of anisogamy and mating types
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EVOLUTION OF THE NUMBER OF SEXES
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ALTERNATIVE MATING STRATEGIES AND THE EVOLUTION OF SEXUAL SIZE DIMORPHISM IN THE SIDE-BLOTCHED LIZARD,UTA STANSBURIANA: A POPULATION-LEVEL COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
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MULTIPLE INTERACTING LOCI CONTROL SEX DETERMINATION IN LAKE MALAWI CICHLID FISH
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WHAT USES ARE MATING TYPES? THE “DEVELOPMENTAL SWITCH” MODEL
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Climate suggests environment‐dependent selection on lizard colour morphs
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.1111/jeb.12871openalex-snapshot
Sex ratio and gamete size across eastern North America in Dictyostelium discoideum, a social amoeba with three sexes
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Life Cycle of the pseudocolonial dinoflagellatePolykrikos kofoidii(Gymnodiniales, Dinoflagellata)
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1185805openalex-snapshot
Maternal Control of Haplodiploid Sex Determination in the Wasp Nasonia
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Ecology, Sexual Selection, and the Evolution of Mating Systems
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Transgender rights rely on inclusive language
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The Evolution of Sex: a Perspective from the Fungal Kingdom
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.1159/000063031openalex-snapshot
The sex determination in Ellobius lutescens remains bizarre
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Environmental Effects on Fish Sex Determination and Differentiation
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It ain’t easy being orange: lizard colour morphs occupying highly vegetated microhabitats suffer greater ectoparasitism
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.1186/s13227-017-0087-5openalex-snapshot
Sex determination mode does not affect body or genital development of the central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps)
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Signaling Inclusivity in Undergraduate Biology Courses through Deliberate Framing of Genetics Topics Relevant to Gender Identity, Disability, and Race
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“It’s completely erasure”: A Qualitative Exploration of Experiences of Transgender, Nonbinary, Gender Nonconforming, and Questioning Students in Biology Courses
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Approach to Interpreting Common Laboratory Pathology Tests in Transgender Individuals
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Androgen Receptor Defects: Historical, Clinical, and Molecular Perspectives*
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ORGANIZING ACTION OF PRENATALLY ADMINISTERED TESTOSTERONE PROPIONATE ON THE TISSUES MEDIATING MATING BEHAVIOR IN THE FEMALE GUINEA PIG 1
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Synaptocrine Signaling: Steroid Synthesis and Action at the Synapse
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The Effect of Diurnal Variation on Clinical Measurement of Serum Testosterone and Other Sex Hormone Levels in Men
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Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Sexes
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Sex Determination: Why So Many Ways of Doing It?
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The Birds and the Bees and the Flowers and the Trees: Lessons from Genetic Mapping of Sex Determination in Plants and Animals
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Evolution's Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.1655/herpetologica-d-19-00036openalex-snapshot
Gene Dose Indicates Presence of Sex Chromosomes in Collared Lizards (Crotaphytus collaris), a Species with Temperature-Influenced Sex Determination
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.1890/07-0572.1openalex-snapshot
A MODEL OF ECOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY CONSEQUENCES OF COLOR POLYMORPHISM
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.whtspa.01openalex-snapshot
White-throated Sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis)
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvs32ssjopenalex-snapshot
The Evolution of Parental Care
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.4003/0740-2783-23.1.121openalex-snapshot
Phally polymorphism and reproductive biology in Ariolimax (Ariolimax) buttoni (Pilsbry and Vanatta, 1896) (Stylommatophora: Arionidae)*
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-9910.1000210openalex-snapshot
Sex versus Gender in Sea Urchins and Leeches Two Centuries after Lamarck 1816
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203127971openalex-snapshot
Sex/Gender
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.42-1551openalex-snapshot
Evolution's rainbow: diversity, gender, and sexuality in nature and people
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.43-2796openalex-snapshot
Hormones and animal social behavior
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.59390/azvz2988openalex-snapshot
Teaching About Sex and Gender in Neuroscience: More Than Meets the “XY”
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.110063openalex-snapshot
The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex /
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.2092openalex-snapshot
The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.27468openalex-snapshot
The genetical theory of natural selection
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.56344openalex-snapshot
A 10-year follow-up study of sex inclusion in the biological sciences
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.70817openalex-snapshot
Reporting and misreporting of sex differences in the biological sciences
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10284openalex-snapshot
Trait differences among discrete morphs of a color polymorphic lizard,Podarcis erhardii

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Incoming claims: where this work appears in other papers’ reference lists and arguments.

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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icag057openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icag126openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icag128openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1111/eth.70025openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1111/ibi.13386openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1186/s13293-024-00610-6openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1186/s13293-025-00758-9openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1186/s13293-025-00808-2openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.24-01-0035openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.25-09-0207openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1215/9781478061779-002openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1215/9781478061779-003openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1215/9781478061779-004openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1215/9781478061779-005openalex-snapshot
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inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1215/9781478061779-006openalex-snapshot
Immaterial Categories in Trans Medicine
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1215/9781478061779-007openalex-snapshot
Epilogue
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1215/9781478061779-008openalex-snapshot
Postscript
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1215/9781478061779-009openalex-snapshot
Notes
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1215/9781478061779-010openalex-snapshot
Bibliography
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.248014openalex-snapshot
Include the females: morphology–performance relationships vary between sexes in lizards
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002933openalex-snapshot
Terminology in ecology and evolutionary biology disproportionately harms marginalized groups
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1013091openalex-snapshot
Ten simple rules for queer data collection and analysis by STEM researchers
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.18261/nnt.42.3.5openalex-snapshot
Hvordan bør vi forstå begrepet «biologisk kjønn»?
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.23865/hu.v14.6433openalex-snapshot
Inkluderande och tvärvetenskaplig utbildningspraktik, när biologi och genusvetenskap möts
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.30820/1664-9583-2024-1-67openalex-snapshot
Sturm und Drang im Würgegriff der Medien
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1472559openalex-snapshot
The library is open: a scoping review on queer representation in psychedelic research
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.3917/pls.579.0042openalex-snapshot
L’oiseau « aux quatre sexes »
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.59390/fzwh1820openalex-snapshot
Designing and Teaching Courses on Sex, Gender, and the Brain: Two Implementations in the Undergraduate Classroom
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.26701696openalex-snapshot
Additional file 1 of Training in the implementation of sex and gender research policies: an evaluation of publicly available online courses
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.26701699openalex-snapshot
Additional file 2 of Training in the implementation of sex and gender research policies: an evaluation of publicly available online courses
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.26701702openalex-snapshot
Additional file 3 of Training in the implementation of sex and gender research policies: an evaluation of publicly available online courses
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.26701705openalex-snapshot
Additional file 4 of Training in the implementation of sex and gender research policies: an evaluation of publicly available online courses
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.26701708openalex-snapshot
Additional file 5 of Training in the implementation of sex and gender research policies: an evaluation of publicly available online courses
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.26701711openalex-snapshot
Additional file 6 of Training in the implementation of sex and gender research policies: an evaluation of publicly available online courses
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.64628/aai.q5ky34agvopenalex-snapshot
Biological sex is neither binary nor a spectrum – a biologist explains how it’s multidimensional
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.64628/aai.vpcyrvhe6openalex-snapshot
How Trump promotes a radical, unscientific theory about sex and gender in the name of opposing ‘gender ideology extremism’
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.64898/2026.02.04.703900openalex-snapshot
The “sex-specific effect:” Evaluating analytical approaches to sex-dependence in the behavioral and brain sciences
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