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Too human and not human enough: A grounded theory analysis of mental health harms from emotional dependence on the social chatbot Replika

https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221142007
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What this work says

Outgoing claims: the papers this work cites, builds on, or argues with.

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The Social Media Disorder Scale
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My Chatbot Companion - a Study of Human-Chatbot Relationships
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Emotional Dependency Based on the Gender of Young Adolescents in Almeria, Spain
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Copresence
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The Pushshift Reddit Dataset
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Natural Language Processing Reveals Vulnerable Mental Health Support Groups and Heightened Health Anxiety on Reddit During COVID-19: Observational Study
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Delivering Cognitive Behavior Therapy to Young Adults With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Fully Automated Conversational Agent (Woebot): A Randomized Controlled Trial
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Attachment Theory as a Framework to Understand Relationships with Social Chatbots: A Case Study of Replika
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.3390/children8110993openalex-snapshot
Jealousy, Violence, and Sexual Ambivalence in Adolescent Students According to Emotional Dependency in the Couple Relationship
inferredcites →https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529782943.n41openalex-snapshot
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Dependencia emocional y consecuencias psicológicas del abuso de internet y móvil en jóvenes.

What points at this work

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Understanding the impact of digital organizational culture on employees’ innovative work behavior
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.infoandorg.2025.100583openalex-snapshot
Microfoundations of rationality in the age of AI: On emotions, bodies and intelligence
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.infsof.2026.108340openalex-snapshot
Human factors in generative AI companions: a systematic literature review of trust, relational dependence, psychosocial outcomes, and responsible adoption
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.03.141openalex-snapshot
Exploring artificial intelligence (AI) Chatbot usage behaviors and their association with mental health outcomes in Chinese university students
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2026.122058openalex-snapshot
Clinical and sociodemographic predictors of AI use for mental health among college students
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2026.122428openalex-snapshot
Latent profiles of generative artificial intelligence use among Chinese college students: Associations with depression and anxiety
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2025.115585openalex-snapshot
A synthesised literature review of technology-based services: towards a paradoxical perspective on consumer-technology interactions
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2025.104298openalex-snapshot
When algorithms meet emotions: Understanding consumer satisfaction in AI companion applications
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrt.2026.100182openalex-snapshot
Terms of entanglement: Artificial mirroring and the governance of synthetic intimacy
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118853openalex-snapshot
User-AI intimacy in digital health
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100504openalex-snapshot
PsyBot: A randomized controlled trial of WhatsApp-based psychological first aid to reduce loneliness among 18–22-year-old students in Yogyakarta, Indonesia
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102550openalex-snapshot
Leveraging social media to examine sustainability communication of home appliance brands
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2026.103263openalex-snapshot
Unveiling the digital confidant: How artificial intelligence psychotherapists surpass human counterparts in enhancing privacy disclosure intention
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2026.103379openalex-snapshot
Emotional attachment to AI chatbots: Evidence from Germany, China, South Africa, and the United States
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2026.103535openalex-snapshot
ChatGPT as an ecosystem shock: Longitudinal quasi-experimental evidence from commercial mental health chatbots
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2025.102313openalex-snapshot
From approach to avoidance: How AI agent cognitive and affective empathy elicits the uncanny valley effect
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2026.102404openalex-snapshot
Healthy bonds or pathological ties? Unpacking emotional dependence on AI through rumination and metacognitive awareness
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2026.102461openalex-snapshot
Being perfectly seen: Affective capture, relational risk, and the Autopticon effect in AI companion systems
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2025.12.007openalex-snapshot
Reminders that chatbots are not human can be risky
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1017/cfl.2026.10051openalex-snapshot
Reimagining corporate governance in the AI era: Law, legitimacy and algorithmic power
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-025-01349-9openalex-snapshot
Supportive? Addictive? Abusive? How AI companions affect our mental health
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-025-02375-3openalex-snapshot
Artificial intelligence characters are dangerous without legal guardrails
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-026-02516-2openalex-snapshot
Interaction with AI companions and psychological well-being
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-96369-wopenalex-snapshot
Developing a standardized framework for evaluating health apps using natural language processing
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-024-01388-yopenalex-snapshot
Systematic review and meta-analysis of adverse events in clinical trials of mental health apps
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-026-03054-xopenalex-snapshot
A scoping review on the mental health harms of LLM-based chatbots
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-025-01051-5openalex-snapshot
Unregulated emotional risks of AI wellness apps
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1038/s43588-025-00874-xopenalex-snapshot
Computational and ethical considerations for using large language models in psychotherapy
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1038/s44184-026-00199-1openalex-snapshot
Navigating the complexity of AI adoption in psychotherapy by identifying key facilitators and barriers
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-024-00232-2openalex-snapshot
Rethinking technology innovation for mental health: framework for multi-sectoral collaboration
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1038/s44277-026-00065-0openalex-snapshot
Characterizing the spiral: potential mechanisms in AI-associated delusions
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04532-5openalex-snapshot
Why human–AI relationships need socioaffective alignment
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05536-xopenalex-snapshot
Companionship in code: AI’s role in the future of human connection
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/01292986.2026.2654455openalex-snapshot
Examining the influence of expectation disconfirmation on AI agent switching intention in mental health
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/0144929x.2025.2502467openalex-snapshot
The algorithm of friendship: literature review and integrative model of relationships between humans and artificial intelligence (AI)
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/0145935x.2026.2725208openalex-snapshot
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Youth Mental Health
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2026.2718411openalex-snapshot
Can AI Companionship Foster Sociability? Promises and Pitfalls of AI-Mediated Leisure Among Vulnerable Populations
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/01612840.2026.2691661openalex-snapshot
Dangers of Dependence on Chatbots for Youth Mental Health
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2024.2411669openalex-snapshot
That uncanny valley of mind: when anthropomorphic AI agents disrupt personalized advertising
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/0267257x.2026.2729244openalex-snapshot
How digital technology transforms consumption: a critical reflection on theoretical lenses and a research agenda
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2024.2326956openalex-snapshot
When artificial intelligence substitutes humans in higher education: the cost of loneliness, student success, and retention
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/03623319.2024.2421610openalex-snapshot
What do people say about Replika, an AI chatbot, on social media? Investigating diverse perspectives on the implications of Replika through a topic modeling analysis
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2026.2714952openalex-snapshot
From Ally – Enemy Conflict to Emotional Communion: Exploring an Attitudinal Ambivalence Toward Emotional Artificial Intelligence
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/0960085x.2026.2673990openalex-snapshot
Me and my Replika: perceived affordances and the formation of psychological ownership of AI companions
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2026.2734161openalex-snapshot
Parental Attachment Anxiety and Adolescents’ Authentic Self-Disclosure to Generative AI: The Roles of Rumination, Depression, and Gender
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2023.2256554openalex-snapshot
Desirable or Distasteful? Exploring Uncertainty in Human-Chatbot Relationships
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2025.2508911openalex-snapshot
Adopting Chatbots for Emotional Support: Empirical Evidence from Hong Kong
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2025.2520936openalex-snapshot
Exploring the Psychological Path of How Digital Literacy Education Alleviates Chatbot Dependency: A Study on Language Professionals Using Structural Equation Modeling
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2025.2544006openalex-snapshot
When Usefulness Fuels Fear: The Paradox of Generative AI Dependence and the Mitigating Role of AI Literacy
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2025.2601298openalex-snapshot
Socioaffective Alignment in Human-AI Interaction: Structuring Relational Integration and Ethical Adaptation
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2025.2604629openalex-snapshot
When Personality Meets Platform: The Moderating Role of Human-Likeness in AI User Evaluations
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2026.2618548openalex-snapshot
Understanding the Longitudinal Associations Between Attachment Style and AI Companion Use in Romantic Human-AI Relationships: A Three-Wave Panel Study
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2026.2618563openalex-snapshot
Development and Validation of the Conversational AI Dependence Scale (CAID): A Dual-Dimensional Measure of Instrumental and Emotional Dependence
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2026.2630076openalex-snapshot
Emotional Comfort or Technological Delusion? Unveiling Public Perceptions and Attitudes Toward AI Companions Based on Video Social Medias
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2026.2648799openalex-snapshot
Artificial Intelligence Chatbots as Relational Agents: A Systematic Review of Human–AI Chatbot Relationships
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2026.2688496openalex-snapshot
Jump Into Comics: Can Reader-AI Interaction Boost Willingness to Pay
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2026.2695435openalex-snapshot
Algorithmically Mediated Intimacy in Human-AI Companionship: Temporal Sedimentation, AI Anxiety, and Algorithmic Awareness
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2026.2712659openalex-snapshot
Adolescents’ Interactions with AI-Powered Chatbots: A Scoping Review of Psychosocial and Well-Being Research (2022–2025)
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2026.2738514openalex-snapshot
Emotional Comfort at a Cost: The Dynamic Role of Social Chatbot Use in Daily Loneliness, Well-Being, and Interpersonal Interaction
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2026.2740397openalex-snapshot
How Do Users Negotiate Harmful Value Conflicts with AI Companions? A Study with Minion, a Technology Probe for In-Situ Human–AI Conflict Response
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/12460125.2024.2443226openalex-snapshot
AI-enabled social support chatbot usage: flowing ambivalence and liminalities
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2025.2478386openalex-snapshot
“Hegemonic” but “obedient” AI boyfriend: the hybrid masculinity of the AI boyfriend and female domination in the China-based FAII
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/15332969.2026.2690273openalex-snapshot
AI Personalization and Psychological Response: Examining the Role of Obsession and Reactance
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2026.2652668openalex-snapshot
Social chatbots and minors: Challenges and opportunities to explore in future research
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/17538068.2025.2594768openalex-snapshot
Conversational AI in healthcare communication: opportunities, risks, and implications for health equity
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/17544750.2025.2599116openalex-snapshot
How far removed is human–chatbot parasocial attachment from human intimacy? A study based on communication accommodation theory
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/21507740.2025.2601351openalex-snapshot
Neuroethics in Suicide Prevention: An East Asian Perspective
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1080/21507740.2026.2649181openalex-snapshot
Perspectives on the Benefits, Concerns, and Requirements Associated with the Implementation of AI Chatbots for Mental Health Support: A Multi-Stakeholder Qualitative Survey
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/9780197826461.003.0024openalex-snapshot
Emerging Technologies and the Future of Singlehood
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/9780198945215.003.0011openalex-snapshot
Chatbots as Social Companions
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/9780198945215.003.0013openalex-snapshot
An Empirical Design Justice Approach to Identifying Ethical Considerations in the Intersection of Large Language Models and Social Robotics
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/9780198945215.003.0055openalex-snapshot
Discursive Constructions of AI Companionship, Labor, and Fantasy
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/9780198945215.003.0062openalex-snapshot
Emotional Cues and Misplaced Trust in Artificial Agents
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/9780198945215.003.0073openalex-snapshot
Authentic Artificial Love
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/9780198945215.003.0099openalex-snapshot
AI Individualism
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/9780198945215.003.0171openalex-snapshot
Human Skill Development in the Age of AI Personhood
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocag078openalex-snapshot
Building safer artificial intelligence mental health chatbots: a framework for transparency, evaluation, and shared accountability
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmae015openalex-snapshot
Finding love in algorithms: deciphering the emotional contexts of close encounters with AI chatbots
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1108/jpmh-01-2026-0016openalex-snapshot
Understanding mental health dimensions through socio-demographic, policy and urban planning frameworks
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1108/oir-06-2025-0473openalex-snapshot
Bonding with AI chatbots: anthropomorphism and changes in social support networks using PLS-SEM and fsQCA
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1109/educon62633.2025.11016461openalex-snapshot
Exploring Experiences and Perceptions of Artificial Intelligence and its Business Applications by University Students
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1109/eurospw61312.2024.00060openalex-snapshot
“Trust Me Over My Privacy Policy”: Privacy Discrepancies in Romantic AI Chatbot Apps
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1109/ic3ina72033.2026.11714762openalex-snapshot
Evaluating Indonesian Mental Health Chatbots via Agentic Simulation: When Ethics and Realism Win
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1109/icaic67076.2026.11395838openalex-snapshot
HopeBot: An AI-Powered Mental Health Chatbot Built to Support College Students
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1109/icicr65456.2025.00155openalex-snapshot
Construction of a Mental Health Risk Early Warning System for College Students Based on Apriori Data Mining
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1109/isiber68248.2026.11469872openalex-snapshot
Understanding Users' Acceptance of AI for Mental Health Support
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1109/wi-iat62293.2024.00146openalex-snapshot
Pervasive Teledildonics: How AI Aims to Impact Human sexuality
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1111/camh.70107openalex-snapshot
Debate: Conversational AI and young people's mental health – friend or foe? – the illusion of a safe space for youth mental health
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1111/eip.70203openalex-snapshot
Knowing How to Ask About Digital Culture in Youth Mental Health Care: A Co‐Designed Tool
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1145/3613904.3642403openalex-snapshot
Which Artificial Intelligences Do People Care About Most? A Conjoint Experiment on Moral Consideration
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1145/3623809.3623951openalex-snapshot
Examining the Role of Genuine Emotions for Trustworthy AI
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1145/3630106.3658956openalex-snapshot
When Human-AI Interactions Become Parasocial: Agency and Anthropomorphism in Affective Design
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1145/3630106.3658964openalex-snapshot
Should Users Trust Advanced AI Assistants? Justified Trust As a Function of Competence and Alignment
inferred← citeshttps://doi.org/10.1145/3679318.3685501openalex-snapshot
In a Quasi-Social Relationship With ChatGPT. An Autoethnography on Engaging With Prompt-Engineered LLM Personas
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